“While respecting the individual preferences of every prisoner, the Detaining Power shall encourage the practice of intellectual, educational, and recreational pursuits, sports and games amongst prisoners, and shall take the measures necessary to ensure the exercise thereof by providing them with adequate premises and necessary equipment. Prisoners shall have opportunities for taking physical exercise, including sports and games, and for being out of doors. Sufficient open spaces shall be provided for this purpose in all camps.”

– Third Geneva Convention, 1949, Article 38, “Intellectual, educational and recreational pursuits, sports and games”[1]

The prisoners of war (POWs)’s right to pursue intellectual activities has been enshrined in international humanitarian law (IHL) since the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 1929 (Art. 17). However, already in 1870, ICRC’s Basel Agency sent books collected in France and in Switzerland to prisoners of war.[2] This type of assistance will later be referred to as “intellectual relief”.

During the First World War, National Red Cross Societies, universities and philanthropical institutions were taking care of the shipment of books to POW camps. Inspired by the Danish philosopher Harald Høffding, the University of Copenhagen and the Danish Red Cross Society sent out around 400.000 volumes to over 20.000 prisoners of war during three years of the First World War. They also gave bimonthly lectures in English, French, German, Russian and Italian in camps all over Europe. These lectures, the contents of which were neutral and impartial, were published in two series.

The ICRC was not directly active in providing intellectual relief during the First World War, but it still recognized its importance as a right that would lessen the suffering of POWs in its draft of the future 1929 Convention, later confirmed into Article 17 of the 1929 Geneva Convention.

Zurickau, Germany. World War I. Prisoners of war camp library. V-P-HIST-E-05246 © ICRC

In 1940, the Advisory Committee on Reading Matter for Prisoners was established at the suggestion of the German Government and the British Red Cross.[3] It coordinated the work of six different organizations trying to offer as much access to intellectual material as possible to camps all over Europe, while avoiding duplication in the allocation of books.[4] These efforts did not lack logistical challenges, which are presented in the 1943 ICRC report “Relief for prisoners of war and civilian internees”. The ICRC presided over the Advisory Committee, coordinating with the support of the Central Tracing Agency and delegates visiting camps, and shipping books it received from different donors. As a neutral intermediary, the ICRC was uniquely positioned to dialogue and coordinate with all involved, which proved essential in navigating through adversity brought by war.

Internally, the ICRC founded its Intellectual Relief Service in 1940, to centralize the response to the innumerable requests for books coming from POW camps, national authorities, National Red Cross Societies and camp leaders. Demands included recreational, educational, and religious books, magazines and newspapers, books in braille for blind POWs, and lip-reading manuals for deaf POWs. This 1944 ICRC report on Intellectual Relief contains extracts of POW letters as examples of book requests.[5]

The Intellectual Relief Service built a library of books in Geneva for shipment to camps. Consignments were selected from the stocks of the library, examined for censorship of the detaining countries, and then dispatched post-free, either in cases or by parcels not exceeding 5 kilos.[6] The ICRC’s service alone, by the end of the war, had sent to the camps nearly a million and a half books, after having sorted, classified, and often repaired them.[7] The “Report of the ICRC on its activities during the Second World War Vol. II on Relief Activities” contains more details about the organization of these efforts.

The ICRC ensured that the reading material, cultural resources and devotional articles corresponded the diversity of the prisoners’ identities, needs, requests, aptitudes and convictions. The Intellectual Relief Service had to inspect books with strict political or moral scrutiny, referring to an index established based on censorship standards or vetoes imposed by belligerents. The number of volumes retained and immobilized until the end of the war was small.[8]

German, British, and American authorities had a list of prohibited books. All other detaining powers allowed books to be sent directly to camps, but the Italian authorities required that book consignments should first undergo two examinations, the first in Rome, and then a second censorship on arrival in the camps.[9]

In collaboration with other organizations and National Societies, the ICRC also supported the creation of libraries in every camp. Prisoners who were unable to access these libraries may have received the books in sets sent to their remote labour detachments.[10]

With the help of camp libraries and teachers who were POWs, the Advisory Committee facilitated the organization of “camp universities”. Classes of all kinds and at all levels were being held in camps. In 1941, German authorities assembled university graduates and students in a separate camp (Stalag IA at Stargard). In Great Britain, nearly 200 German medical students were held in Camp No.23. In 1945, the ICRC sent them illustrated editions of works on anatomy and other branches of medicine, and equipment for their studies.

Romania, 1940. Polish military internment camp library. V-P-HIST-E-04367 © ICRC

In 1944, the Advisory Committee established contacts by correspondence between camps and the American universities, which lent books and arranged for courses. The Italian authorities forbade correspondence courses until 1943, when they allowed them at the request of the ICRC.[11]

The above is a British Red Cross’s books appeal poster, 1940. By the end of the war, more than 239,000 books had been dispatched to POW camps by the St. John War Organization. Books were donated by the general public and various institutions. Education services, set up in 1940, enabled many prisoners to earn university degrees while in captivity. This poster is contained in the 2021 British Red Cross’s book “Museum of kindness : 150 years of the British Red Cross”. The Educational Books Section of the British Red Cross was at the New Bodleian, Oxford.[12]

The Young Men’s Christian Association (Y.M.C.A.), part of the Advisory Committee, delivered intellectual material to many camps. In its 1946 “World’s youth newsletter”, the association published the article “The world of books” outlining its efforts in this matter. From the top left: German prisoners in England: a camp library, art exhibition, barrack room, and lecture. A lecture to Japanese prisoners in China. Soviet prisoners in Germany. Allied camp for blind prisoners at Bad Soden, Germany. Japanese prisoners in China. Italians at Camp Butnar, Canada. A British Doctor at Oflag IX A in Germany. Some of the 4000 boxes made for the Y.M.C.A. by Polish internees in Switzerland, and sent as circulating libraries for men on isolated detachments in Germany.

In 1941, the Italian Red Cross kept a stock of books in Geneva for the ICRC to send to Italian POWs. The ICRC suggested the Italian Red Cross delegations purchase books closer to POW camps, otherwise they might be stopped by the economic blockade of the United Kingdom and France. The Italian Red Cross did not agree to the suggestion, so only the camps in the Middle East and South Africa detaining Italian POWs seemed to have had sufficient material. Italian POWs in England received textbooks by the Y.M.C.A.[13]

Shanghai, 1944. Moonsung Prisoner of War Camp Library. V-P-HIST-03388-26A © ICRC

Other than books, the ICRC and national societies were sending “occupational parcels” for POWs who had been wounded or recovering from an operation. These consisted of an assortment of embroidery, tapestry, basket work tools, etc., as reported in the official journal of the prisoners of war department of the British Red Cross and St. John war organisation.

Towards the end of the war, the many books donated to POWs represented a considerable cultural value, especially due to difficulties that the war brought to publishers. In 1944, the ICRC requested detaining authorities to ensure the preservation of the books and their return to their countries of origin.[14]

Before the Diplomatic Conference that would adopt the Geneva Convention of 1949, a meeting for the Study of Treaty Stipulations relative to the Spiritual and Intellectual Needs of Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees was held in 1947 and, in 1948,  the Danish Red Cross presented a memorandum to National Red Cross Societies on basis of a program of cultural relief at the XVII International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement in 1948.

A year later, the adoption of the Third Geneva Convention confirmed again the right of prisoners of war to pursue intellectual activities in Article 38, and similarly for civilian internees in Article 94 of the Fourth Geneva Convention.

The 2021 Updated Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention stresses the importance of this provision for its reflection of the humanitarian concerns underlying the Convention, in particular the requirement of humane treatment (Article 13) and to respect the persons and honour of prisoners (Article 14).

Brazil, Fortaleza metropolitan area, Aquiraz municipality, Irmã Imelda Lima Pontes prison, 2022. An incarcerated person reads a book about the story of Nelson Mandela sent by the ICRC for an initiative in partnership with the Ceará State Prison Administration Department, as part of a campaign to promote the Nelson Mandela Rules, standards on the treatment of people deprived of their liberty. V-P-BR-E-00507 © ICRC

Learn more:

• ICRC’s protection of POWs: highlights from the ICRC library collections
• The library’s heritage collection holds material related to military libraries in France in late 1860s. (Call numbers AF 1854, AF 313, AF 1680, AF 1681, AF 1682, AF 1683, AF 1684, AF 1685, AF 1686).
• Martin Bodmer, wealthy bibliophile and vice-president of the ICRC from 1947 to 1964, chaired the ICRC Intellectual Relief Service.
• Research guide on the ICRC during World War II
• Reports on the visits of the POW camps in World War I
• The long journey of an Italian prisoner of war: insights from the ICRC archives
• Artistic expression and theatre in POW camps

References

[1] For more information, see Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention : Convention (III) relative to the treatment of prisoners of war, p. 900; For civilian internees, see Fourth Geneva Convention, 1949, Article 94, “Recreation, study, sports and games”

[2] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , p.276

[3] Reports of the Advisory Committee on Reading Matter for Prisoners, 1939-1960, UNESCO, Box n°82/279

[4] The Committee comprised of World Alliance of YMCAs, International Bureau of Education, Ecumenical Commission for Chaplaincy Service to Prisoners of War, European Student Relief Fund, International Federation of Library Associations and Swiss Catholic Mission for Prisoners of War.

[5] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume I, p. 7

[6] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume III, p.289

[7] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume I, p.278

[8] Secours aux prisonniers de guerre et internés civils, CICR, 1943, p.25

[9] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume I, p.278

[10] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume III, p.290

[11] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume I, p.279

[12] P.G. Cambray and G.G.B. Briggs, Red Cross and St John war organisation, 1939-1947. British Red Cross and Order of St John of Jerusalem, 1949.

[13] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume III, p.293

[14] Report of the International Committee of the Red Cross on its activities during the Second World War (September 1, 1939 – June 30, 1947) , Volume I, p.278 ; Report of the Joint Relief Commission of the International Red Cross 1941 – 1946, ICRC, 1948. p.233